Computer Overview-Introduction [The Components of a Computer]

The Components of a Computer

A computer contains many electric, electronic, and mechanical components known as hardware. These components include:

Input devices

Output devices

System unit

Storage devices

Communications devices.

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Input Devices

• An input device is any hardware component that allows you to enter data and instructions into a computer.
• Five widely used input devices are the keyboard, mouse, microphone, scanner, and Webcam.
• A computer keyboard contains keys you press to enter data into the computer.
• A mouse is a small handheld device. With the mouse, you control movement of a small symbol on the screen, called the pointer, and you make selections from the screen.
• A microphone allows a user to speak into the computer.
• A scanner convert’s printed material (such as text and pictures) into a form the computer can use.
• A Web cam is a digital video camera that allows users to create movies or take pictures and store them on the computer instead of on tape or film.

 

Output Devices

• An output device is any hardware component that conveys information to one or more people.
• Three commonly used output devices are a printer, a monitor, and speakers (See Figure).
• A printer produces text and graphics on a physical medium such as paper.
• A monitor displays text, graphics, and videos on a screen. Speakers allow you to hear music, voice, and other audio (sounds).

System Unit

The system unit is a case that contains electronic components of the computer that are used to process data (Figure on the previous page). The circuitry of the system unit usually is part of or is connected to a circuit board called the motherboard.

Two main components on the motherboard are the processor and memory. The processor, also called the CPU (central processing unit), is the electronic component that interprets and carries out the basic instructions that operate the computer. Memory consists of electronic components that store instructions waiting to be executed and data needed by those instructions. Most memory keeps data and instructions temporarily, which means its contents are erased when the computer is shut off.

 

Storage Devices

Storage holds data, instructions, and information for future use. For example, computers can store hundreds or millions of customer names and addresses.

Storage holds these items permanently.

A computer keeps data, instructions, and information on storage media.

Examples of storage media are USB flash drives, hard disks, optical discs, and memory cards.

A storage device records (writes) and/or retrieves (reads) items to and from storage media.

Storage devices often function as a source of input because they transfer items from storage to memory.

A USB flash drive is a portable storage device that is small and lightweight enough to be transported on a keychain or in a pocket (Figure 1.2).

The average USB flash drive can hold about 4 billion characters.

A hard disk provides much greater storage capacity than a USB flash drive.

The average hard disk can hold more than 320 billion characters.

Hard disks are enclosed in an airtight, sealed case. Although some are portable, most are housed inside the system unit (Figure 1.3).

Portable hard disks are either external or removable.

An external hard disk is a separate, freestanding unit, whereas you insert and remove a removable hard disk from the computer or a device connected to the computer.

An optical disc is a flat, round, portable metal disc with a plastic coating.

CDs, DVDs, and Blu-ray Discs are three types of optical discs.

A CD can hold from 650 million to 1 billion characters.

Some DVDs can store two full-length movies or 17 billion characters (Figure 1.4).

Blu-ray Discs can store about 46 hours of standard video, or 100 billion characters.

Some mobile devices, such as digital cameras, use memory cards as the storage media.

You can use a card reader/writer (Figure 1.2) to transfer stored items, such as digital photos, from the memory card to a computer or printer.

 

Communications Devices

A communications device is a hardware component that enables a computer to send (transmit) and receive data, instructions, and information to and from one or more computers or mobile devices.

A widely used communications device is a modem (Figure 1.2).

Communications occur over cables, telephone lines, cellular radio networks, satellites, and other transmission media.

Some transmission media, such as satellites and cellular radio networks, are wireless, which means they have no physical lines or wires.

Next: Advantages and Disadvantages of Using Computers

Computer Overview-Introduction [ Input Process Output cycle (IPO) ]

Input Process Output cycle (IPO)

Computers process data (input) into information (output). Computers carry out processes using instructions, which are the steps that tell the computer how to perform a particular task. A collection of related instructions organized for a common purpose is referred to as software. A computer often holds data, information, and instructions in storage for future use. Some people refer to the series of input, process, output, and storage activities as the information processing cycle. Recently, communications also has become an essential element of the information processing cycle.

Read Next: The Components of a Computer

Computer Overview-Introduction 01 [Data and Information]

Data and Information

• Computers process data into information.
• Data is a collection of unprocessed items, which can include text, numbers, images, audio, and video. Information conveys meaning and is useful to people.

Previous – Computer Overview-Introduction 01                      Next – Input Process Output cycle (IPO)

Computer Overview-Introduction 01

Introduction

Nowadays, computers are an integral part of our lives. They are used for the reservation of tickets for airplanes and railways, payment of telephone and electricity bills, deposit and withdrawal of money from banks, processing of business data, forecasting of weather conditions, diagnosis of diseases, searching for information on the Internet, etc. Computers are also used extensively in schools, universities, organizations, music industry, movie industry, scientific research, law firms, fashion industry, etc.

Definition

• The term computer is derived from the word compute.
• The word compute means to calculate.
• A computer is an electronic machine that accepts data from the user, processes the data by performing calculations and operations on it, and generates the desired output results.
• Computer performs both simple and complex operations, with speed and accuracy.

 

Here we discusses the history and evolution of computer, the concept of input-process-output and the characteristics of computer. Also discusses the classification of digital computers based on their size and type, and the application of computer in different domain areas.

Next – Data and Information

Smart Phone?? It’s Time for Smart Lens.

Smart phones are a thing of past! The pace of technological advancement is so overwhelming that each new day, new inventions knock the door. A significant invention in field of nanotechnology is undoubtedly, THE SMART LENS. It is a project initiated by Google and pharmaceutical giant Novartis has agreed a deal with Google to develop its "smart" contact lens to help diabetics monitor their glucose levels.
This achievement is being considered a great milestone in the field of bio-engineering. Google’s prototype lens was first revealed in January. It is designed to measure the level of glucose in the wearer’s tears and communicate the information to a mobile phone or computer. The latest strategy adopted by these market targeting companies is manipulating the stream of healthcare appliances. The boom is endless with the growth of unhealthy adoption of lifestyle. Wearable technology is seen as a key growth sector.
Novartis announced that its eye care division Alcon has entered into an agreement with a division of Google Inc. to in-license its "smart lens" technology for all ocular medical uses. The agreement with Google[x], a team within Google that is devoted to finding new solutions to big global problems, provides Alcon with the opportunity to develop and commercialize Google’s "smart lens" technology with the potential to transform eye care and further enhance Alcon’s pipeline and global leadership in contact lenses and intraocular lenses.

The core of this device is a minute chip developed using the implementation of nanotechnology. It is a wireless chip and has miniaturized glucose sensors embedded between two layers of soft contact lens material. Google states that the chips and sensors are so small they look like bits of glitter, and an antenna thinner than a human hair. It said the prototype could generate a reading once per second. That has definitely a great potential to revolutionize eye care as we know today. The device promising such wonders is going to take some time before flooding the market but the dream is not far away. People suffering from diabetes need to monitor their glucose levels regularly as sudden spikes or drops are dangerous.
At present, the majority of them do so by testing drops of blood. Consumer demand for innovative ways of doing this is likely to grow as the incidence of diabetes continues to increase. Mr. Jimenez, Novartis Chief Executive,said the smart lenses may also be used can also correct vision in a manner similar to the lenses on auto focus cameras. This will also help cure a lot of eye related diseases. For people living with presbyopia who can no longer read without glasses, the "smart lens" has the potential to provide accommodative vision correction to help restore the eye’s natural auto focus on near objects in the form of an accommodative contact lens or intraocular lens as part of the refractive cataract treatment.

While some are calculating it as technology disrupting the pharmaceutics, but such advancement have always been disregarded in the beginning. New technology has never been accepted immediately and history bears witness to that.

How to Start a Small Business in India

As we all know, under the rule of present government, Indian economy is taking a beating. Job opportunities are dwindling very fast. Even if you find a job opportunity then it is only for highly skilled people like IT professionals and other kind of experienced jobs.

Not everyone is great in academic qualification. Therefore, what you are going to do when jobs that pays you good money is simply not there. If it is there then it is only for highly qualified or experienced candidates. And its also very difficult to get a sarkari naukari because there is a very high competition for every vacancy.

What you are going to do if you are a young college graduate, a man who is looking for a job for years now, an employee who is fired from his company, a housewife or even a retiree. Well! There is a way out.

You can start a small business in India.

 

 

Opportunities for Small Businesses in India

 

When economy is under pressure and you are looking for a job then best way is to start a small business in India. As I said earlier, you can start a small business on your own.

Opportunities to start a small business here are great. In this article, I will tell you 10 different types of small businesses that you can start and make a lot of money.

You will never run out of ideas in India for starting a small business. There is a lot of thing that you can do even if you do not have much experience. Moreover, you can also easily meet the financial requirements.

The benefits of Small Business in India

Before I talk about 10 different types of small businesses, let me tell you some benefits of starting a small business in India. These benefits you will not find in other types of regular jobs.

Small Business Makes You Self Employed

The first one, in small business you are self-employed. You do not have to take orders from your boss. There is no fear of being laid off. Whenever there is a financial crunch, corporation fire their regular employees without any notice.

Here you do not have to worry because you manage your own business and everything depends upon you. Self-employed businessman do not have to worry about economy or anything else, they just keep going.

Long Term Scope in Small Businesses

When you are starting your own business then you do not have to worry about monthly income. Future of a small business is really great because it is closely run by an individual and close family members. Hence, they take care that nothing goes wrong.

Moreover, you can make huge amount of money like any other business. You do not have to depend on your company or corporation for financial success. If you work as an employee in an MNC then you get salary only what your company decides. However, in running a small business you can make unlimited money. All the profits your company makes in yours.

Everything depends upon you.

Better Customer Care in Small Businesses

I am not saying but you just visit Google and type the name of any big company or its service followed by complaints & you will find thousands of victim on different forums & complaints boards complaining about the services provided by these companies. Everyone is in the race of making profits only without giving any good service & customer care.

There is no good care about the customer by the large corporations. You have to try very hard even to talk to their customer care dept.

But in small businesses, you will find a good customer care. You can directly talk to the business owner. One of the main reason small business flourish is better customer care.

Good tax savings in small businesses

Well! I am not telling you to evade tax here. We all know this is illegal. However, I want to make a point here that you can save a lot of money in small business.

You can hire a good CA who can give you the best ideas of saving your tax against many expenses that you can show to reduce the tax burden.

Types of Small Business

Now let us see 10 small businesses that you can start in India and make money without having to lose anything.

1. Opening a Small Restaurant

First one, that any young college graduate or a working employee can do is open a small restaurant. It really does not need any kind of experience. Today, when urban centers are growing and people need places to eat out. They do not want to cook themselves but they can pay for eating out. So there is a huge market out there.

What Are Requirements?

You need to find a location where people are looking for an eat-out. You can try to find locations near companies where young people work. Then you have to pay rent to the owner for the land. First you have to pay yearly advance and then rent on monthly basis.

You also need cook and some basic hotel staffs. 12 to 15 people will do every type of job from cooking to serving to cleaning.

Requirements are:

1. A good Location
2. 12 to 15 Staff for cooking and cleaning
3. Cashier or accountant

How to Get Finance?

As I said earlier, you have to pay rent on monthly basis and payment for cooks. Before you start making money, you have to pay these guys who will work 12 hours daily for you.

Usually you get money from your family or you can go for small loans. People start small restaurants with their own hard-earned money. But today banks also give loans for starting up a restaurant. It is very profitable. You can talk to a financial consultant who can better tell you smart ways of taking loans.

Hence, getting finance must not be a difficult thing here.

What Are Difficulties You May Face?

Well! While starting a small business you might face some difficulties. Here are they.

1. Honest cooks who will work regularly.
2. In starting you need patience if your business is not running in profit.
3. Listen to customers if any complains.
4. Your owner may increase your monthly rent.

2. Opening a Kiosk

Kiosk is nothing but a small stall. Stall can be anything like a tea or coffee shop, which offers some refreshments. It can also be a place serving eateries like cakes, puffs, pastries and cold drinks.

You might have seen kiosks near cinema halls, railway stations, bus stations, government offices, in colleges etc. People will always come there for refreshments. It is very profitable business. You will never lose money.

What Are Requirements?

To run a kiosk you have to wait for tender, you can get a kiosk to run in a good location. You have to talk to your contractor who will give you a kiosk on contract. Here are some

Requirements before you open a kiosk.

1. You need a small shop or stall
2. Monthly rent to your contractor.
3. Supply of refreshments like cake, puff, cold drinks etc from a bakery that is in contact with you.
4. An honest person to run that kiosk, one or two. If you are busy.

How to Get Finance?

Well! To be honest for opening a kiosk you really do not need much money. You can ask your parents if you are a college graduate or if you have money then you can start on your own.

Here money required is very less.

What Are Difficulties You May Face?

Well! Here getting a contract is going to be very difficult because hundreds of applicants are waiting to get a chance to open a kiosk. Especially if location is very good, where many people come on daily basis.

3. Opening a General Store

Opening up a general store is quite profitable when urbanization is growing rapidly. General store means provision store that caters daily essentials for people. It can be food items, groceries, even apparels.

People have to always fulfill their basic needs so they have to go nearby general store. You can also open a store with all the items that a person needs for his daily life. Store will always  run in profit.

What Are Requirements?

Here you have to arrange few things.

1. A rented shop in a busy area or colony.
2. Loyal customers
3. Little bit of advertisements
4. Some men to bring in goods in the store

How to Get Finance?

Financing is just easy as financing a kiosk. In fact, in India opening up a general store is a family business. So it would not be difficult for you.

I recommend you to spend more money on store’s interior. Ambience must be good to improve shopping experience of customers. It means you have to spend more money here.

What Are Difficulties You May Face?

In this small business only difficulty that you might face is patience. You have to wait for some time before you start making profit. Otherwise, there is no major difficulty.

4. Starting a Coaching Center

Almost everyone in India has seen posters saying “Coaching Classes For Class 12 ” etc. In India, there are millions of students in every city who are in class 10 or class 12. They desperately need tuition and other coaching classes to get better results.

You can definitely get hundreds of students daily to teach them. There is a lot of money to be made here. Students are not satisfied with their regular studies and they are always looking for coaching classes.

Moreover, it is not necessary that you have to teach regular course material. You can also give coaching on personality development, speaking fluent English, computers, cooking, dancing,  painting etc.

What Are Requirements?

Let me explain you some requirements to start this small business.

1. First one is that you have to know a subject that you are teaching. You must have experience and total control on your subject. Any one subject is enough.
2. You need a classroom with a board and some furniture’s. I recommend conducting classes in a good location where it looks professional.
3. You also need a faculty of teachers or instructors. Initially, you can start on your own.
4. Lastly, you have to advertise about your coaching center in newspaper or by distributing pamphlets in colleges, bus stops etc.

How to Get Finance?

Let us see how you can finance this business.

1. You need to pay rent where you will take classes. If you do not have enough money then you can start your class in your home also.
2. Later on, you have to recruit or look for new faculty members, teachers who will teach the subjects.
3. You also have to spend on advertisements to get more students.

What Are Difficulties You May Face?

1. To start a coaching center you have to spend very much on advertisement because you are new to this field.
2. You also have to talk to parents of your students because some students do not perform well.

5. Mail Marketing

Mail marketing is a completely home based business where you can run it from the comfort of your home. It is good for women who cannot go out. Moreover, it takes very little to start this business.

In mail marketing you simply have to promote about a business by sending a mail to various customers. In a mail there will be a pamphlet, which will tell the customers about a product. If they buy that product then you get commission from the company.

What Are Requirements?

Here are some requirements before you start mail marketing business.

1. You have to register for a company.
2. You need to write a sales letter, which must convince the readers.
3. You may need a color pamphlet that is going to tell the benefits of the product you are selling. You can also use black and white print.
4. Envelopes and stamp-posts for sending pamphlets to customers daily.

How to Get Finance?

Here getting finance is also very easy. Main spending will be on stationery like envelopes, stamps and mailing costs. If you want to go for color pamphlets then printing cost would be more.

You can get your finance from your family members. You do not need any loan for this type of small business.

What Are Difficulties You May Face?

Difficulties you might face are

1. You have to write good sales letter that must attract the attention of your customers. You must develop writing skills and this is very difficult.
2. For printing color pamphlets, you have to spend more money. It can cost very much if your budget is less.

6. Opening a Consultancy Service

Do not get panic when I mention consultancy service. You do not have to build a consultancy service like Infosys or Wipro. Here a consultancy service business is where you can afford to build it in few months.

In consultancy service, you will consult young college graduates regarding their future plan. You will make money when you recommend the right company to the college graduates where they can be recruited.

Mainly a candidate will come to a consultancy service to ask a company that can give him a job. In return you charge a fees for telling the right place.

What Are Requirements?

Consultancy services can be very profitable but it needs certain requirements.

1. First you have to build a relationship with major companies (MNC) that needs new recruits.
2. Then you also have to build contacts with local companies which are very small and they hire few candidates.
3. Off course like other small businesses, here also you need an office space. You can even start from your home if you like.
4. You also need to spend on advertising your consultancy service. You can buy space in newspaper for classified ads.

How to Get Finance?

Well! Banks do provide loans if you want to start a small business like consultancy service. You can also invest money from your savings. But ultimately in consultancy service more than money you require the knowledge.

What Are Difficulties You May Face?

As I said earlier here only difficulty you might face is building a contact or relationship with major companies and small companies.

You have to know them all and stay in touch with them. It is not very easy because you must have some adjustment or influence in these companies to get important knowledge out of them. You might face this major difficulty.

7. Network Marketing

In earlier blog posts, we did talk about the network marketing. Network marketing is actually a no brainer. Even if you are 10^th pass you can become a network marketer & make money like a very successful doctor or an engineer.

In network marketing, you have to build a team under you, which is going to sell products to customers. First, you have to start alone and convince people about a product. For example, you can start with Amway products.

You have to get people to become member under your leadership. You have to expand your  network with more members enrolling in it.

What Are Requirements?

1. First is you have to sign up for a company like Amway. For registration, you have to pay small fees.
2. Then you need some time to promote the product among people.
3. Lastly, here requirements are not any physical like office space or paying rent. Here you need to have certain qualities like leadership, hardworking, honesty, and also smartness.

How to Get Finance?

The good news about this small business is that you do not need any money. Yes, you need small amount of money only to be registered. That is all. In fact, you will make money after you start getting members.

This is a small business where investment is zero and in return, you can make a lot of income. All depends on your hard work and leadership quality.

What Are Difficulties You May Face?

The only difficulty you may face is how to overcome your shyness. Here you have to stand like a leader and motivate your team members.

Second is that you need a lot of time. You can do as a part time work but still ample time is certainly required here.

8. Counseling

A counsellor is a person who gives an advice to people who want solution for their problems. Counselling is different from teaching because it is very personal. A counsellor will meet its client one on one.

In India where middle class is growing rapidly and people’s income is increasing, they would not mind to spend extra money for consulting a counsellor. They are ready to pay that cost if they see their problems are solved through counselling.

There are different types of counsellors however, I tell you some of them which people are looking for. Career counsellor, marriage counsellor, mental health counsellor, relationshipcounsellor, counselling about how to grow a kid etc .

What Are Requirements?

Here are requirements to be a counsellor.

1. You must know your subject very well, only then you can help others.
2. Affluent people in this country only prefer counselling. So you need to open your office in an area where people from affluent class lives.
3. Here building contacts with people is very important. Whenever you attend conferences, seminar, parties or concerts never forget to give them a card printed with your name and address. Card will tell them about your counselling job.

How to Get Finance?

Here your main expenditure would be in building contacts with people, who are very affluent. You have to spend on travelling for meeting various people from different lifestyles.

Moreover, to have an office in a posh area is also very costly. So you need finance for these two things.

What Are Difficulties You May Face?

Here you have to wait for clients before you start making money. Moreover, you also have to spend money for office space in a posh area.

In India, ordinary people do not know about counselling. They go for rudimentary form of advice from non-professionals. Therefore, awareness is low among ordinary people.

9. Taking a Franchise

Starting your small business as a franchisee is different from opening a general store. Opening a general store means you are just one entity. However, starting a franchise means you have to become part of a corporation.

You have to take license from franchise like McDonalds, Café Coffee day, Star Bucks, Pizza Hut etc. With their permission, you can open a store and make profit. You do not have to wait for customers because these are very popular brand.

What Are Requirements?

Here are some of the requirements.

1. You need a license from the franchise.
2. You will have to hire a lawyer for legal requirements.
3. To open an outlet you need a space, which is good enough.
4. Team member who can work at least 12 hours a day.

How to Get Finance?

You can get loan from banks or you can also ask your family members to involve in this business. Opening a franchise is quite difficult because you need an area that attracts lot of customers.

What Are Difficulties You May Face?

The major difficulties could be

1. Arranging finance would be a major challenge.
2. Legal requirements would not only cost you extra money but needs an extra effort.

10. Online Business

The last and most effective small business that you can begin is online business. You start earning money from the comfort of your home. You can make hell lot of money with minimum investment.

There are different types of jobs that you can do online. You can become a blogger, data entry job, internet marketer, freelance writing jobs etc. Today thousands of people in India are making money online.

No experience is required, anyone can make money online.

What Are Requirements?

For an online business, requirements are very less.

1. You need a desktop computer with an internet connection.
2. You need typing speed of 20 to 30 words per minute.
3. Writing skills are very important.

How to Get Finance?

I do not think you need any finance to get a computer with internet connection. If you have a mobile phone, then getting a desktop with internet is not that difficult.

What Are Difficulties You May Face?

1. You have to be careful about scams and do not think that online business is get rich scheme. Nothing will happen overnight, you have to wait with patience. This is not a jackpot.
2. Do not give up too early, you must try then only you will succeed.

Origin of the QWERTY Keyboard

 

The first typewriter was introduced to the United States in 1868 by Christopher Latham Sholes. His first attempt to build a typing device consisted of a crude and sluggish machine that was far from perfect. The design used letters and characters on the ends of rods which were called typebars. When a key was struck, the typebar would swing up and hit the ink-coated tape which would transfer the image onto paper.

The original design of the keyboard positioned keys in alphabetical order in two rows. Makes sense, right? Well, this arrangement caused the typebars of the most commonly used combination letters of the alphabet (ie. TH and ST) to be positioned close together, so when the keys were hit right after the other with a speed faster than a snail, the keys would jam.

The attempt to solve this malfunction resulted in a rearrangement of keys. In 1868, in collaboration with educator Amos Densmore, Sholes arranged the letters on the keyboard for better spacing between popular keys used in combination. The results was that this initially made it difficult for people to find the letters they needed to type efficiently.

However, someone who mastered this new key arrangement would actually be able to type faster because the keys wouldn’t jam. This was the beginning of the QWERTY keyboard, which first appeared in 1872.

The first typewriter machine found its way on the market in 1874 through Remington & Sons. The device was called the Remington No. 1. You’re probably thinking it sold out in minutes since it was the latest and greatest technological device to be mass-produced. The truth is, most people ignored it. Sure, the machine still had some quirks and Sholes had yet to figure out ideal customers for his invention, but in the late 1870s, the idea of “mechanical writing” was just plain strange for most people.

The accepted norm was to write letters in legible longhand and many people found mechanical writing uncouth or even offensive. Sholes figured his device would appeal to clergyman and men of letters first and then he’d branch out to the general public; he didn’t even consider its use in business. All of these factors probably played a part in the typewriter’s initial lack of sales.

Four years later, after slight modifications to the arrangement of the keyboard were made, Remington & Sons produced the new Remington No. 2 model. The Remington No. 2 included the arrangement of keys we use today along with the ability to type both capital and lowercase letters by using the shift key. The shift key received its name because it caused the carriage to shift position in order to type either a lowercase or capital letter which were on the same typebar. Although the shift key we use on our keyboards today does not cause the machine to shift mechanically, the name stuck.

As the typewriter rose in popularity, people stopped complaining about the weird arrangement of keys and started memorizing the keyboard and learning how to type efficiently. Although other alternate keyboards tried to break onto the market, most people decided to stay with the QWERTY board, and none of the other type-writing machines proved successful.

One prominent attempt at a replacement keyboard occurred in the early 1930s when Professor August Dvorak of Washington State University set out to develop a more user-friendly keyboard. He ultimately redesigned the keyboard so all of the vowels and the five most commonly used consonants were arranged on the home row (AOEUIDHTNS).

Although the design required a typist to frequently alternate hands to type most words, with the Dvorak keyboard, a person could type approximately 400 of the English language’s most common words just by using the keys of the home row, compared to 100 words on the QWERTY keyboard. In addition, using the Dvorak keyboard, a typist’s fingers would not have to travel as far as they did on Sholes’ keyboard to type the majority of words.

Dvorak set out to prove his machine superior to Sholes’, but his keyboard never caught on. Many of the studies used to test the effectiveness of his keyboard were flawed or were deemed a conflict of interest since Dvorak conducted them himself.

A U.S. General Services Administration study in 1953 of Dvorak’s keyboard determined it didn’t matter which keyboard was used. Experienced typists in either keyboard typed at approximately the same speed, with variance based more on their individual skill rather than either keyboard design being superior to the other in a larger samplesize or words.

This ultimately killed the Dvorak keyboard as the majority of people didn’t want to commit the time or resources it would take to be trained on a new keyboard. Thus, the QWERTY keyboard persevered through today and seemingly will continue to do so for the foreseeable future.

As Dr. Dvorak said, “Changing the keyboard format is like proposing to reverse the Ten Commandments and the Golden Rule, discard every moral principle, and ridicule motherhood.”

Bonus Facts:

• Author Mark Twain was one of the first people to purchase the early typewriter and is probably the first author to submit a typed manuscript to his publisher.
• E. Remington & Sons, the company that mass-produced the first typewriter, was best known for their firearms.
• What kind of a word is QWERTY? It looks like a bunch of random letters thrown together to me; a made-up word by an elementary school kid who had not yet learned the rule that U follows Q in the majority of words. In case you’ve never noticed, the name QWERTY comes from the first six letters of the first row of keys on the standard keyboard.
• Some speculated that another reason the original typewriter met resistance when it was first introduced to the world was because poor spellers could no longer hide their ignorance by poor handwriting.
• Using the QWERTY keyboard, you can type the word ‘typewriter’ using only the top row of keys.
• The least expensive typewriter, produced in the late 1800s, cost only $1, and was appropriately named, “The Dollar Typewriter”.
• Sholes’ first attempt to create a typewriting machine was a crude piece of work made with part of an old table, a circular piece of glass, a telegraph key, a piece of carbon paper, and piano wire. An improved prototype of this device resembled a toy piano and is now in the Smithsonian’s National Museum of American History.
• Frank McGurrin, a court stenographer from Salt Lake City, is considered the first person to memorize the QWERTY keyboard and master touch-typing, as opposed to the hunt-and-peck method.  He rose to fame when he participated in typing contests and demonstrations across the country and caused people to take interest not only in the QWERTY keyboard, but in mastering the touch-typing method.
• The alphanumeric keypad used on many cellphones today is called a half QWERTY keyboard.

10 tips to Increase runtime of your laptop and

Oftentimes for laptops, prospective buyers can be more interested in the battery life of the product than the actual specifications and hardware that lie under the hood. After all, what good is a portable computer if it cannot run on batteries for as long as the user requires? here is some novice tips and buying guides that any current or future laptop owner can take advantage of.

1. Use Windows Power Manager

If a laptop will be running on batteries often, then the settings on the software end should be configured to reflect that kind of usage. Thus, the built-in Power Management utility for Windows 7 is a useful and user-friendly tool for optimizing battery life by manipulating laptop performance and behaviour. The tool can be reached under Power Options in the Control Panel or just by typing in ‘powercfg.cpl’ in the Run Command window.
With the power manager tool, users are given direct access to a variety of power options. Windows includes a couple of pre-built battery plans such as power over performance, performance over power, and balanced. Of course, if you want more control over a power plan, you’d have to customize one yourself.
The Advanced settings window will let users do just that by allowing direct access to set behavioural commands for different computer components. For example,USB ports can be disabled and CPUs can be under clocked to conserve battery life. These are powerful and easily adaptable options that should be adjusted to fit the needs of the user.

2. Block Flash Ads and Close Unnecessary Processes

One of the easiest ways to increase runtime is to simply close and shut down unwanted programs and background activities. This will reduce hard drive access, free up RAM, and decrease CPU activity, all of which will directly benefit battery life.
A good example is the number of active windows and icons on the Windows task bar. Programs that automatically run on startup can be disabled if they are never actively used in order to reduce clutter, while excess browser tabs and graphic-heavy websites can be closed if no longer needed to save RAM and CPU cycles.
Additionally, many Flash-based ads around the web are notorious not just for their impracticality, but also for occupying more CPU power and are thus needless battery drains. To save battery power, users should install Flash-blocking programs or extensions for their browsers. The most popular free extension for this purpose is Adblock, which is currently available for Firefox, Safari, and Chrome. For Internet Explorer, users can disable Flash under the Tools and Manage Add-Ons menu, where the Shockwave Flash Object can be found. While incremental, these steps can make a difference in battery runtime during long sessions.

3. Disable Wireless/Bluetooth

Occasionally, wireless settings such as Wi-Fi and Bluetooth are enabled by default. This is sometimes unwanted especially since some users will rarely use the Bluetooth functionality on the laptop. We suggest disabling Bluetooth when not in use.
If the laptop is not going to connect to a network for any reason (such as working outdoors or on a train), then the wireless connection should be turned off. Otherwise, the laptop will continuously search for available local networks and drain valuable battery life in the process.

4.Reduce the Brightness of the Display

Adjusting the display brightness is one of the quickest methods to conserving battery life. Usually, the brightness settings are directly on the laptop keyboard and are often associated with the fn (function) key. A lower brightness level will mean that more time can be squeezed out of the battery.
If short on battery life, we suggest toning down the brightness to a level that will still allow for optimal working conditions. Brightness levels that are too low or high, however, can cause eyestrain and make reading text a chore. To prevent this, a higher brightness setting is suggested for working outdoors under sunny conditions while lower settings can be used for working indoors or in classrooms. In general, good modern displays can produce a brightness of over 200cd/m2, but such levels are not necessary for everyday office use. Play around with the brightness settings to optimize battery life and to see which levels are most comfortable for the eyes.
On a similar note, most new laptops are equipped with LED backlighting instead of the traditional fluorescent tubes. LED has the potential to produce a more even light throughout the screen while maintaining superior power efficiency compared to fluorescent lighting. Therefore, LED backlit screens are preferable if purchasing a new laptop with battery life in mind.

5. Use a Virtual Drive

Use of a DVD drive can be quite taxing on battery life because of the mechanical spinning motor required to read discs. Consequently, avoid constant use of the DVD drive when running on batteries. Instead, files on a disc should be copied and accessed through the hard drive or a USB flash drive if possible.
More often than not, however, many users could be using the DVD drive for playing clips or movies during long flights or car rides. If this is the situation, it is recommended to avoid playing the movie directly off of the DVD and to instead use a virtual drive. A virtual drive acts as an ordinary DVD drive, but will play disc images off of the hard drive or flash drive instead of physical DVDs. The disc image will be an exact copy of the DVD and can be created with some help from freeware programs, but retail DVD movies cannot be copied for legal reasons.
Common virtual drive programs include Alcohol 52% and Daemon Tools, both of which have free versions for personal use. Virtual drives should take away the hassle of carrying around DVDs, all the while improving battery life.
Among other benefits, solid-state drives like this OCZ model can offer lower power consumption, but will come at a moderate to high price.

6. Consider a Solid-state Drive Upgrade

A solid-state drive (SSD) has many advantages over traditional hard drive discs (HDD), but in terms of battery life, the biggest advantage is the absence of moving parts. This, in combination with its different architecture, allows for generally more efficient power consumption.
Most SATA-enabled notebooks can have the original HDD easily replaced with a SSD. The process is no different from swapping hard drives or upgrading to larger capacities.
The largest disadvantage when upgrading to a SSD is the associated cost. If you’ve ever wondered why some laptops are $700 and others are $2500, one likely reason is because the latter is fitted with a high capacity SSD. The NAND flash chips currently used in many SSDs can run for as much as $1.00 to $2.00 per gigabyte as of 2011, so it can cost more than a few hundred dollars just to match the capacity of a HDD. While the upgrade is simple, the price required is off-putting for many.

7. Choose Integrated over Discrete Graphics Solutions

For those in the market for a new laptop and battery life optimization is of utmost concern, consider looking for a notebook with an integrated graphics controller instead of one with discrete graphics. Discrete graphics can be more powerful, but can also acutely reduce the battery life of any notebook even if graphic intensive processes are not running. This is largely due to the raw speeds and die sizes of discrete graphics chips, thus these chips demand more power from the battery just to keep them running idle.

Additionally, most portable users do not necessarily need the high-performance capabilities of a discrete graphics chip. If web browsing, email, music, word processing, Farmville, and streaming video are on top of the to-do list, then the advanced, often more expensive dedicated graphics option is simply overkill for the user. A laptop with Intel GMA HD or AMD Radeon 4200 would suffice.
That is not to say integrated graphics are inadequate, however. Newer integrated graphics especially are much more powerful than the previous generations while remaining power efficient. This allows for smoother video and streaming performance and even support for full HD (1920×1080) resolution playback through an HDMI-out port. A prime example is the Intel GMA HD 3000 or the new AMD Fusion APU. These new chips are powerful enough for light gaming and high-definition video playback on-the-go without the need for battery-draining discrete graphics solutions.
First shown at CES 2011, the AMD Fusion APU combines a general-purpose processor with functions of a modern mainstream GPU into a single chip for greatly reduced power usage.

8. Consider Switchable Graphics

Some users may need more graphical power than that provided by integrated graphics chips, however. Heavier graphics work such as moderate video editing or Adobe Photoshop usage will benefit greatly from a laptop with better graphics capabilities. For these users, laptops with switchable graphics preferences can provide the extra video-processing power needed while still saving on battery life.
A laptop with switchable graphics will contain both an integrated graphics chip and a discrete graphics chip, but will generally have only one active at a time. Depending on preference, the user can have the notebook run on the integrated graphics solution to preserve battery life or on discrete graphics during times where the additional processing power is needed. Switchable graphics thus allows for greater flexibility and utility out of a laptop, but expect to pay a little more for such capabilities.
A popular option is to look for laptops with support for Nvidia Optimus technology. Nvidia Optimus enables on-the-fly automatic switching between the dedicated GPU and the integrated graphics chip depending on user configuration or current running programs. This eliminates the need for any rebooting and can save plenty of time for uninterrupted work or multitasking. Unfortunately, Nvidia Optimus is currently only available for Windows 7-based notebooks as of this writing, so Macbooks and Linux-based machines are excluded. Newer MacBook Pros, however, run on Apple’s own proprietary graphics switching technology that is fully automated by the MacOS X operating system. While this system functions differently from Optimus, it can still provide a degree of energy management for Apple owners.

9. Purchase a New/Larger Battery

If buying a laptop online, especially from a brand name company like Dell, HP, Sony, or Lenovo, the buyer will usually be given the option to choose between a 6-cell, 8-cell, or 12-cell Lithium-ion battery module. A cell refers to one of the many independent, often cylindrical, lithium ion-based batteries that make up the entire laptop battery module itself.
Generally, a battery with more cells will last longer than a battery with less. This also scales quite nicely, as a 12-cell battery will last roughly twice as long as a 6-cell battery, assuming all else equal. Therefore, it might be worth considering a battery with more cells right from the get-go when purchasing a new laptop.
Be aware, however, that the larger the number of cells, the larger and heavier the battery module will be in general. Many laptops and notebooks nowadays dedicate almost the entire backside just for the battery. A module with a lower number of cells may fit snugly on the back, but a larger module will have some volume protruding outwards behind the laptop due to the increased cell count. Additionally, larger battery modules will demand more from your wallet, so make sure the extra weight and size will be worth the investment.
If the current laptop is more than a few years old, it is advisable to purchase a new battery if a new laptop is not yet worth the investment. All Li-ion batteries degrade overtime, so a battery that once provided 4 hours of use two years ago may only provide 1 to 2 hours today and will ultimately continue to provide less overtime. At this point, a new battery will aid laptop runtime much more significantly than many of the suggestions on this list.
While on the subject of batteries, certain new laptops allow for up to 2 batteries to be attached simultaneously for up to double the runtime. Thus, these laptops can be favourable options for future battery-conscious laptop owners. Examples include the Sony Vaio S Series and Lenovo’s updated ThinkPad series for 2011. With dual batteries, reaching double-digit hours when off the power grid should be easily reachable.

10. Consider External Battery Packs

The external battery above is recharging both a smartphone and laptop simultaneously. This particular Digipower model provides 4400mAh and is available for about $99.
An alternative but similar option is to utilize an external battery pack instead of the specialized batteries that were designed to fit into specific laptops. These rechargeable external batteries connect directly to a laptop’s DC-in port and often include a number of different connection cords to ensure compatibility with a wide range of laptop models. The biggest advantage here is the immense versatility of an external battery pack; it can power and recharge not only existing and future laptops, but also potentially other electronics such as phones, cameras, iPads, and other similar devices. Thus, its usefulness extends through multiple gadgets as each can take advantage of the portable power source.
A typical external battery designed for laptops can range from $50 to $200, depending on the size, features, and output power. Keep in mind, however, that the battery will be an additional burden for those constantly on the move. Most promise at least several hours of usage, but be sure to check the milliamps/hr (mAh) rating to be convinced. Estimated runtime can be calculated from the product of its amps/hr rating and the voltage output, divided by the laptop power use in watts (Ah x Volts)/(watts). Of course, this conversion is a very rough approximation, and as such should not be the sole determinate for selecting external batteries.

6 amazing things you didn’t know about your computer

It’s a ritual across the globe: somewhere between sticking the kettle on and complaining about last night’s match, you’ll probably hit the button on your ageing company PC and wait while it slowly thinks about turning on. Rather than take it for granted, though, it’s worth taking a couple minutes to realize a few of the things that your poor robot slave does without you ever knowing.

 

1. Bits, Bytes, and Size

Next time you complain about the pitiful memory capacity of your old 8GB iPod Touch, it’s worth remember what makes up eight whole gigabytes. Computer science grads will know that in every gigabyte, there’s 1024 megabytes; 1024 kilobytes in a megabyte, and 1024 bytes in a kilobyte. Breaking it down to the lowest level, you’ve got 8 bits in a byte.
Why does that matter? Because on a flash drive, each bit of data is made up of eight separate floating gates, each comprising two physical transistors, which can basically record themselves as either a ‘1’ or a ‘0’. (Want to be impressed ever further? Each floating gate actually relies on quantum mechanics to work.) That means that an 8GB iPod Touch – the one you were laughing at a minute ago for being puny – has, according to my back-of-the-napkin maths, 549,755,813,888 individual gates arrayed inside that svelte aluminium body. Mighty clever engineering indeed.

 

2. Everything you see or hear on the internet is actually on your computer

All your computer-whizz friends probably delight in telling you how having a ‘library’ of videos is so 2008, that no-one torrents any more, it’s all Netflix and iPlayer and ‘The Cloud’, whatever that means. But, you might want to remind them: every time you stream a video or the week’s latest Top 40 off the web, it’s actually, technically playing off your computer.
See, every internet media file has to make a local copy of itself on your machine, first. Ever wondered what that white buffering bar means on YouTube or Netflix? It’s the amount of video that’s been copied to the local cache, a.k.a. the amount you can still watch if your internet decides to up and die.

See, every internet media file has to make a local copy of itself on your machine, first. Ever wondered what that white buffering bar means on YouTube or Netflix? It’s the amount of video that’s been copied to the local cache, a.k.a. the amount you can still watch if your internet decides to up and die.

 

3. The distance data travels

A quick experiment for you: click this link, which should take you to Wikipedia. With one click, you’ve just fetched a bunch of data from servers in Ashburn, Virginia, about 6000km away. Your request has travelled from your computer, through a local Wi-Fi router or a modem, up to a local data centre, from there onwards (under the Atlantic Ocean, if you’re in the UK), all the way to Virginia, and back again – in around 0.1 of a second, depending on how good your internet connection is.
By comparison, your body takes around 0.15 of a second for a signal to pass from your fingers, up your spinal cord to the brain, and back down again.

 

4. Counting Starts at Zero

At a base level, every computer’s just a really big, complicated calculator. But thanks to the way its intrinsic circuitry works – with lots of little logic gates that are either ‘on’ or ‘off’ – every action that takes place at a base level is happening in binary, where things are either a 1 or a 0, with no shades of grey in between.
This actually translates up to a neat bit of programming trivia – in the computer science world, all counting (with the rather notable exceptions of Fortran and Visual Basic) starts at zero, not one.
It actually makes a lot more sense – ever thought about why the 20th century refers to the 1900s? It’s because when historians decided on the dating system, they weren’t clever enough to call the very first century (0-99AD) the 0th century. If they had, we’d probably have far fewer confused school children the world over.

 

5. The work that goes into a Ctrl+C, Ctrl+V

One rather under-appreciated fact about solid state drives (SSDs), regarded as the gold standard for fast, reliable storage, is the amount of copying they have to do. When you want to copy some data from one bit to another, it’s not just a matter of shuffling the data from one part of the drive to another.
Because of the complicated way a SSD works, over-writing a block of old data with some shiny new data isn’t as simple as just writing the new stuff in with a bigger, thicker Sharpie. Rather, the storage drive has to do some complicated shuffling around.
In practice, this can mean that writing a tiny 4KB file can require the drive to read 2MB (that’s thousands of times more data that the 4KB file you’re trying to write), store that temporarily, erase a whole tonne of blocks, then re-write all the data. It’s rather labour-intensive, so think before you juggle your files around next time.

 

6. Code isn’t as clean as you think

The majority of us put faith in bits of technology you don’t quite understand – be it committing your life to a 747, or your dirty pics to Snapchat’s auto-delete. When you do you generally tend to assume that the code’s been scrupulously examined by teams of caffeine-fuelled programmers, with most of the niggling little bugs found and nixed.
The truth seems to be quite the opposite. One Quora user pointed out that buried within the source code for Java, one of the internet’s fundamental bits of code, is this gem:
/**
* This method returns the Nth bit that is set in the bit array. The
* current position is cached in the following 4 variables and will
* help speed up a sequence of next() call in an index iterator. This
* method is a mess, but it is fast and it works, so don’t f*ck with it.
*/
private int _pos = Integer.MAX_VALUE;
It just goes to show that even programmers rush things to get home for the next installment of Game of Thrones sometimes.

Install Windows XP,7,VISTA In Just 10 minutes

As We all know that During Formatting a Computer After the File Copying is Completed then windows Require 39 Minutes Time…But What Extreme In It…. Yes We can Bypass this faking Time …. How TO DO IT??? So read On..
I have Included Snaps Shots That will help you.

[ INSTALLING WIN XP IN 10 MINUTES! ]
STEP 1 : After the Copy Part is Over … System is Rebooted as we all know In general Formatting Procedure…
Now After Reboot The Below Image Will Appear….

STEP 2: Now As This Image APPEARS You Have to Press "Shift + F10 " . This Will Open The command Prompt… Now type taskmgr in it. This will open the Task manager .

 

STEP 3 : After The task Manager Opens Goto Processes … And Find "Setup.exe" process and Right CLICK on It…. and set the Priority to Highest….

STEP 4: Now Just Watch the Set It will take around 9 minutes and 2 minutes for Tolerance(depends System to system)….

That’s the Overall Tutorial…Hope You all Have LIKED IT… You Can Use this method in Both Windows 7 And Vista

So When you Format your PC Next Time It will Really Save Your TIME i.e around 20 to 25 minutes….Enjoy